Water Quality and Health Risk Assessment of Surface Water, Groundwater, and Sediments along Kali River

Abstract

The current study assesses the physicochemical properties and heavy metal concentrations (Cd, Ni, As, Cr, Pb, Cu, Mn, Zn, Fe) in groundwater, surface water, and sediment across 15 sites along the Kali River in the Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar, and Meerut districts of Uttar Pradesh. The results show average pH values of 7.7 in groundwater and 7.2 in surface water, with electrical conductivity measured at 670.87 μScm-1 and 1143 μScm-1, and TDS values of 469.61mgl-1 and 800.43 mgl-1, respectively. Various cations and anions were present in the water, such as (Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Na⁺, K⁺, HCO₃⁻, Cl⁻, SO₄²⁻, NO₃⁻, etc. Indices such as Na%, SAR, MH, and PI indicate that the water is suitable for irrigation with some treatment. Sediment analysis reveals a pH of 7.2, conductivity of 16,701μScm-1, TOC of 2.37%, and TOM of 4.09%. Heavy metal concentrations in groundwater and sediment follow the order: Cd < Ni < As < Cr < Pb < Cu < Mn < Zn < Fe, while in surface water, the order is Cd < As < Ni < Cr < Pb < Zn < Cu < Mn < Fe. Some metal levels exceed drinking water standards at certain sites (G1, G2, G8, G12, and S5 to S10). PCA identifies three factors explaining 99.13% of the variance, indicating natural and human metal contamination sources. Risk and heavy metal pollution indices highlight elevated risks at specific sites, posing serious threats not only to crop safety and human health through irrigation but also to broader ecological systems. This underscores the urgent need for site-specific remediation to ensure the sustainability of agricultural practices and to prevent bioaccumulation in the food chain.